Language Overview - Part 1

Importing

Very few programs are written as a single file without a standard library or external libraries. Our first program is no exception and uses Zig's standard library to print our output. Zig's import system is straightforward and relies on the @import function and pub keyword (to make code accessible outside the current file).

We import a module by specifying the module name. Zig's standard library is available using the "std" name. To import a specific file, we use its path relative to the file doing the importing. For example if we moved the User struct into its own file, say models/user.zig:

// models/user.zig
pub const User = struct {
	power: u64,
	name: []const u8,
};

We'd then import it via:

// main.zig
const User = @import("models/user.zig").User;

models/user.zig can export more than one thing. For example, we could also export a constant:

// models/user.zig
pub const MAX_POWER = 100_000;

pub const User = struct {
	power: u64,
	name: []const u8,
};

In which case, we could import both:

const user = @import("models/user.zig");
const User = user.User;
const MAX_POWER = user.MAX_POWER

At this point, you might have more questions than answers. In the above snippet, what's user? We haven't seen it yet, but what if we use var instead of const? Or maybe you're wondering how to use third party libraries. These are all good questions, but to answer them, we first need to learn more about Zig. For now we'll have to be satisfied with what we've learned: how to import Zig's standard library, how to import other files and how to export definitions.

Comments

The next line our Zig example is a comment:

// This code won't compile if `main` isn't `pub` (public)

Zig doesn't have multi-line comments, like C's /* ... */.

There is experimental support for automated document generation based on comments. If you've seen Zig's standard library documentation, then you've seen this in action. //! is known as a top-level document comment and can be placed at the top of the file. A triple-slash comment (///), known as a document comment, can go in specific places such as before a declaration. You'll get a compiler error if you try to use either type of document comment in the wrong place.

Functions

Our next line of code is the start of our main function:

pub fn main() void

Every executable needs a function named main: it's the entry point into the program. If we renamed main to something else, like doIt, and tried to run zig run learning.zig, we'd get an error saying that 'learning' has no member named 'main'.

Ignoring main's special role as our program's entry point, it's a really basic function: it takes no parameters and returns nothing, aka void. The following is slightly more interesting:

const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
	const sum = add(8999, 2);
	std.debug.print("8999 + 2 = {d}\n", .{sum});
}

fn add(a: i64, b: i64) i64 {
	return a + b;
}

C and C++ programmers will notice that Zig doesn't require forward declarations, i.e. add is called before it's defined.

The next thing to note is the i64 type: a 64-bit signed integer. Some other numeric types are: u8, i8, u16, i16, u32, i32, u47, i47, u64, i64, f32 and f64. The inclusion of u47 and i47 isn't a test to make sure you're still awake; Zig supports arbitrary bit-width integers. Though you probably won't use these often, they can come in handy. One type you will use often is usize which is an unsigned pointer sized integer and generally the type that represents the length/size of something.

While there's no good reason to do so, if we change the implementation of add to:

fn add(a: i64, b: i64) i64 {
	a += b;
	return a;
}

We'll get an error on a += b;: cannot assign to constant. This is an important lesson that we'll revisit in greater detail later: function parameters are constants.

For the sake of improved readability, there is no function overloading (the same function named defined with different parameter types and/or number of parameters). For now, that's all we need to know about functions.

Structures

The next line of code is the creation of a User, a type which is defined at the end of our snippet. The definition of User is:

pub const User = struct {
	power: u64,
	name: []const u8,
};

Struct fields are terminated with a comma and can be given a default value:

pub const User = struct {
	power: u64 = 0,
	name: []const u8,
};

When we create a struct, every field has to be set. For example, in the original definition, where power had no default value, the following would give an error: missing struct field: power

const user = User{.name = "Goku"};

However, with our default value, the above compiles fine.

Structs can have methods, they can contain declarations (including other structs) and they might even contain zero fields, at which point they act more like a namespace.

pub const User = struct {
	power: u64 = 0,
	name: []const u8,

	pub const SUPER_POWER = 9000;

	fn diagnose(user: User) void {
		if (user.power >= SUPER_POWER) {
			std.debug.print("it's over {d}!!!", .{SUPER_POWER});
		}
	}
};

Methods are just normal functions that can be called with a dot syntax. Both of these work:

// call diagnose on user
user.diagnose();

// The above is syntactical sugar for:
User.diagnose(user);

Most of the time you'll use the dot syntax, but methods as syntactical sugar over normal functions can come in handy.

diagnose is defined within our User type and accepts a User as its first parameter. As such, we can call it with the dot syntax. But functions within a structure don't have to follow this pattern. One common example is having an init function to initiate our structure:

pub const User = struct {
	power: u64 = 0,
	name: []const u8,

	pub fn init(name: []const u8, power: u64) User {
		return User{
			.name = name,
			.power = power,
		};
	}
}

The use of init is merely a convention and in some cases open or some other name might make more sense. If you're like me and not a C++ programmer, the syntax to initalize fields, .$field = $value, might be a little odd, but you'll get used to it in no time.

When we created "Goku" we declared the user variable as const:

const user = User{
	.power = 9001,
	.name = "Goku",
};

This means we can't modify user. To modify a variable, it should be declared using var. Also, you might have noticed that user's type is inferred based on what's assigned to it. We could be explicit:

const user: User = User{
	.power = 9001,
	.name = "Goku",
};

We'll see cases where we have to be explicit about a variable's type, but most of the time, code is more readable without the explicit type. The type inference works the other way too. This is equivalent to both of the above snippets:

const user: User = .{
	.power = 9001,
	.name = "Goku",
};

This usage is pretty unusual though. One place where it's more common is when returning a structure from a function. Here the type can be inferred from the function's return type. Our init function would more likely be written like so:

pub fn init(name: []const u8, power: u64) User {
	// instead of return User{...}
	return .{
		.name = name,
		.power = power,
	};
}

Like most things we've explored so far, we'll revisit structs in the future when talking about other parts of the language. But, for the most part, they're straightforward.

Arrays and Slices

We could gloss over the last line of our code, but given that our little snippet contains two strings, "Goku" and "{s}'s power is {d}\n", you're likely curious about strings in Zig. To better understand strings, let's first explore arrays and slices.

Arrays are fixed sized with a length known at compile time. The length is part of the type, thus an array of 4 signed integers, [4]i32, is a different type than an array of 5 signed integers, [5]i32.

The array length can be inferred from the initialization. In the following code, all three variables are of type [5]i32:

const a = [5]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

// we already saw this .{...} syntax with structs
// it works with arrays too
const b: [5]i32 = .{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

// use _ to let the compiler infer the length
const c = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

A slice on the other hand is a pointer to an array with a length. The length is known at runtime. We'll go over pointers in a later part, but you can think of a slice as a view into the array.

Given the following,

const a = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
const b = a[1..4];

I'd love to be able to tell you that b is a slice with a length of 3 and a pointer to a. But because we "sliced" our array using values that are known at compile time, i.e. 1 and 4, our length, 3, is also known at compile time. Zig figures all this out and thus b isn't a slice, but rather a pointer to an array of integers with a length of 3. Specifically, its type is *const [3]i32. So this demonstration of a slice is foiled by Zig's cleverness.

In real code, you'll likely use slices more than arrays. For better or worse, programs tend to have more runtime information than compile time information. In a small example though, we have to trick the compiler to get what we want:

const a = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
var end: usize = 3;
end += 1;
const b = a[1..end];

b is now a proper slice, specifically its type is []const i32. You can see that the length of the slice isn't part of the type, because the length is a runtime property, and types are always fully known at compile time. When creating a slice, we can omit the upper bound to create a slice to the end of whatever we're slicing (either an array or a slice), e.g. const c = b[2..];.

Learning Zig has taught me that types are very descriptive. It isn't just an integer or a boolean, or even an array of signed 32 bit integers. Types also contain other important pieces of information. We've talked about the length being part of an array's type, and many of the examples have shown how the const-ness is also part of it. For example, in our last example, b's type is []const i32. You can see this for yourself with the following code:

const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
	const a = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
	var end: usize = 4;
	end += 1;
	const b = a[1..end];
	std.debug.print("{any}", .{@TypeOf(b)});
}

If we tried to write into b, such as b[2] = 5; we'd get a compile time error: cannot assign to constant. This is because of b's type.

To solve this, you might be tempted to make this change:

// replace const with var
var b = a[1..end];

but you'll get the same error, why? As a hint, what's b's type, or more generically, what is b? A slice is a length and pointer to [part of] an array. A slice's type is always derived from what it is slicing. Whether b is declared const or not, it is a slice of a [5]const i32 and so b must be of type []const i32. If we want to be able to write into b, we need to change a from a const to a var.

const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
	var a = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
	var end: usize = 3;
	end += 1;
	const b = a[1..end];
	b[2] = 99;
}

This works because our slice is no longer []const i32 but rather []i32. You might reasonably be wondering why this works when b is still a const. But the const-ness of b relates to b itself, not the data that b points to. Well, I'm not sure that's a great explanation, but for me, this code highlights the difference:

const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
	var a = [_]i32{1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
	var end: usize = 3;
	end += 1;
	const b = a[1..end];
	b = b[1..];
}

This won't compile; as the compiler tells us, we cannot assign to constant. But if we had done var b = a[1..end];, then the code would have worked because b itself is no longer a constant.

We'll discover more about arrays and slices while looking at other aspects of the language, not the least of which are strings.

Strings

I wish I could say that Zig has a string type and it's awesome. Unfortunately it does not, and they are not. At its simplest, Zig strings are sequences (i.e. arrays or slices) of bytes (u8). We actually saw this with the definition of the name field: name: []const u8,.

By convention, and by convention only, such strings should only contain UTF-8 values, since Zig source code is itself UTF-8 encoded. But this is not enforced and there's really no difference between a []const u8 that represents an ASCII or UTF-8 string, and a []const u8 which represents arbitrary binary data. How could there be, they are the same type.

From what we learned about arrays and slices, you'd be correct in guessing that []const u8 is a slice to a constant array of bytes (where a byte is an unsigned 8-bit integer). But nowhere in our code did we slice an array, or even have an array, right? All we did was assign "Goku" to user.name. How did that work?

String literals, those you see in the source code, have a compile-time known length. The compiler knows that "Goku" has a length of 4. So you'd be close in thinking that "Goku" is best represented by an array, something like [4]const u8. But string literals have a couple special properties. They are stored in a special place within the binary and deduplicated. Thus, a variable to a string literal is going to be a pointer to this special location. That means that "Goku"'s type is closer to *const [4]u8, a pointer to a constant array of 4 bytes.

There's more. String literals are null terminated. That is to say, they always have a \0 at the end. Null-terminated strings are important when interacting with C. In memory, "Goku" would actually look like: {'G', 'o', 'k', 'u', 0}, so you might think the type is *const [5]u8. But this would be ambiguous at best, and dangerous at worse (you could overwrite the null terminator). Instead, Zig has a distinct syntax to represent null terminated arrays. "Goku" has the type: *const [4:0]u8, pointer to a null-terminated array of 4 bytes. While talking about strings we're focusing on null-terminated arrays of bytes (since that's how strings are typically represented in C), the syntax is more generic: [LENGTH:SENTINEL] where "SENTINEL" is the special value found at the end of the array. So, while I can't think of why you'd need it, the following is completely valid:

const std = @import("std");

pub fn main() void {
	// an array of 3 booleans with false as the sentinel value
	const a = [3:false]bool{false, true, false};

	// This line is more advanced, and is not going to get explained!
	std.debug.print("{any}\n", .{std.mem.asBytes(&a).*});
}

Which outputs: { 0, 1, 0, 0}.

If I've done an acceptable job of explaining this, there's likely still one thing you're unsure about. If "Goku" is a *const [4:0]u8, how come we were able to assign it to a name, a []const u8? The answer is simple: Zig will coerce the type for you. It'll do this between a few different types, but it's most obvious with strings. It means that if a function has a []const u8 parameter, or a structure has a []const u8 field, string literals can be used. Because null terminated strings are arrays, and arrays have a known length, this coercion is cheap, i.e. it does not require iterating through the string to find the null terminator.

So, when talking about strings, we usually mean a []const u8. When necessary we explicitly state a null terminated string, which can be automatically coerced into a []const u8. But do remember that a []const u8 is also used to represent arbitrary binary data, and as such, Zig doesn't have the notion of a string that higher level programming languages do. Furthermore, Zig's standard library only has a very basic unicode module.

Of course, in a real program, most strings (and more generically, arrays) aren't known at compile time. The classic example being user input, which isn't known when the program is being compiled. This is something that we'll have to revisit when talking about memory. But the short answer is that, for such data, which is of an unknown value at compile time, and thus an unknown length, we'll be dynamically allocating memory at runtime. Our string variables, still of type []const u8 will be slices that point to this dynamically allocated memory.

comptime and anytype

There's a lot more than meets the eye going on in our last unexplored line of code:

std.debug.print("{s}'s power is {d}\n", .{user.name, user.power});

We're only going to skim over it, but it does provide an opportunity to highlight some of Zig's more powerful features. These are things you should at least be aware of, even if you haven't mastered them.

The first is Zig's concept of compile-time execution, or comptime. This is the core to Zig's metaprogramming capabilities and, as the name implies, revolves around running code at compile time, rather than runtime. Throughout this guide, we'll only scratch the surface of what's possible with comptime, but it is something that's constantly there.

You might be wondering what it is about the above line that requires compile-time execution. The definition of the print function requires our first parameter, the string format, to be comptime-known:

// notice the "comptime" before the "fmt" variable
pub fn print(comptime fmt: []const u8, args: anytype) void {

And the reason for this is that print does extra compile-time checks that you wouldn't get in most other languages. What kind of checks? Well, say you changed the format to "it's over {d}\n", but kept the two arguments. You'd get a compile time error: unused argument in 'it's over {d}'. It'll also do type checks: change the format string to "{s}'s power is {s}\n" and you'll get an invalid format string 's' for type 'u64'. These checks would not be possible to do at compile time if the string format wasn't known at compile time. Thus the requirement for a comptime-known value.

The one place where comptime will immediately impact your coding is the default types for integer and float literals, the special comptime_int and comptime_float. This line of code isn't valid: var i = 0;. You'll get a compile-time error: variable of type 'comptime_int' must be const or comptime. comptime code can only work with data that is known at compile time and, for integers and floats, such data is identified by the special comptime_int and comptime_float types. A value of this type can be used in compile time execution. But you're likely not going to spend the majority of your time writing code for compile time execution, so it isn't a particularly useful default. What you'll need to do is give your variables an explicit type:

var i: usize = 0;
var j: f64 = 0;

In a future part, we'll examine comptime a bit more when exploring generics.

The other special thing about our line of code is the strange .{user.name, user.power}, which, from the above definition of print, we know maps to a variable of type anytype. This type should not be confused with something like Java's Object or Go's any (aka interface{}). Rather, at compile time, Zig will create a version of the print function specifically for all types that was pass to it.

This begs the question: what are we passing to it? We've seen the .{...} notation before, when letting the compiler infer the type of our structure. This is similar: it creates an anonymous structure literal. Consider this code:

pub fn main() void {
	std.debug.print("{any}\n", .{@TypeOf(.{.year = 2023, .month = 8})});
}

which prints:

struct{comptime year: comptime_int = 2023, comptime month: comptime_int = 8}

Here we gave our anonymous struct field names, year and month. In our original code, we didn't. In that case, the field names are automatically generated as "0", "1", "2", etc. While they're both examples of anonymous structure literal, the one without fields names is often called a tuple. The print function expects a tuple and uses the ordinal position in the string format to get the appropriate argument.

Zig doesn't have function overloading, and it doesn't have vardiadic functions (functions with an arbitrary number of arguments). But it does have a compiler capable of creating specialized functions based on the types passed, including types inferred and created by the compiler itself.